Researching the U.S. Army Camels

For ten years, the U.S. Army undertook an experiment bringing camels to Texas. It is a fascinating period of American history that touches on the war with Mexico, westward expansion, the Civil War, Native Americans, and Route 66.

So why were there camels in Texas?

Due to the Mexican cession of 1848, the United States had spread to the Pacific Ocean. Much of this new territory in the southern region was desert, creating an obstacle for transporting and supporting military troops in the frontier and protecting and assisting settlers as they trekked westward. The California Gold Rush had brought tens of thousands of migrants to the west coast, but there were few routes available and the journey was treacherous with threat of Native American raids, not to mention the lack of water. An idea was proposed to Secretary of War Jefferson Davis (future President of the Confederate States of America) to import camels into the land to test their possible utilization for military purposes. In 1855, it was approved and government funding allowed two overseas expeditions to secure camels from the Mediterranean region and deliver them into Texas through the port of Indianola, along with their Arab camel handlers in May 1856 and February 1857.

“Camels secured for a gale,” by Gwinn Harris Heap, from Information Respecting the Purchase of Camels for the Purposes of Military Transportation, 1857

Maj. Henry C. Wayne undertook some initial trials with the camels to determine their strength and durability which immediately showcased their superiority over the current beats of burden actively employed by the Army. Wayne reported these findings and consistently advocated for a breeding program to fully integrate the use of camels for the Army, but it was repeatedly denied. The herd of approximately 70 camels would grow slowly.

Originally, the camels were housed a few miles away from the famous Alamo which served as the quartermaster depot in San Antonio. Wayne quickly discovered the curiosity that followed these unique animals was too distracting so he searched for a better location, settling on Camp Verde in the Hill Country. This cavalry frontier post had been established to mount quick responses to Native American actions in the area. The frontier post was soon nicknamed “Little Egypt” and it became very common to see Army camels plodding into San Antonio to pick up supplies at the quartermaster depot and return to the hills.

Thomas Lovell - “Camels in Texas” Courtesy of the Abell-Hanger Foundation and the Permian Basin Petroleum Museum, Library and Hall of Fame of Midland, Texas

            To put the camels to use and truly test their capabilities for Army service, three main expeditions were undertaken. The first was with Edward F. Beale in 1857 to scout a wagon road from New Mexico territory near Albuquerque to the Colorado River. This has been a well-researched portion of the camel experiment with links to transport and westward expansion.[1] Beale took half the herd and for the remainder of the experiment these camels would be in California. The route he built with the camels would later become Route 66 and modern-day Interstate-40. Later, two summer expeditions were undertaken: one to survey the land in Big Bend country with 2nd Lieutenants William H. Echols & Edward L. Hartz in 1859. The last expedition with the camels returned to Big Bend attempting to locate a possible fort location, again led by Echols in 1860. Other than a few reports of these Big Bend expeditions, there has been little investigation to the experience and its connection to the line of frontier forts across Texas as the United States continued expanding and clashing with the Native Americans. Perhaps some new information or untapped correspondence will be uncovered in the research.

All of these expeditions concluded with high praise for the camels. The men were quite surprised with their utility. Combing through government reports illustrates the opinions of the men who worked with the animals. The functionality of camels was proven in the Southwest. Requests were submitted to import more camels to establish a proper herd and better develop their use for the military.

It would never come to pass.

In 1861, the Civil War broke out and Federal property in the south was surrendered to the Confederacy, including the camels in Texas. This is the beginning of the end for the camel experiment as half the herd was in California, the other half in Texas. It is here that scholarship is lacking on the camel experiment and has become the current focus of the dissertation.

The hope is to uncover additional documentation at archives and other repositories on what happened with the camels in Confederate-controlled Texas during the Civil War. Very little is known on those four years and there has not been dedicated research to find an answer. So far, from Rip Ford’s Texas, scholars are aware that the Confederates were instructed to make the camels serviceable to military use and something was attempted.[2] What that effort was is unknown. Loose references are given about using the camels for transporting mail and supplies into and back from Mexico. However, the endeavors were abandoned and the camels were largely left at Camp Verde to their own devices and for local amusement. Another avenue of research leads to Bethel Coopwood, Captain of a Confederate reconnaissance company during Sibley’s New Mexico campaign who is possibly linked to the camels before he buys them at auction for his own enterprises after the war.

The end of the Civil War is the end of the government’s camel experiment. Army leadership decided to auction off the camels as they were not being effectively managed for the benefit of the military. Also, strong Confederate connections made it unpopular to maintain. Technology was advancing and sights were set on railroads for transport in the southwest. The work of Harlan D. Fowler profoundly expands on this portion of the experiment that follows the use of the Army camels after they were sold.[3] Until the 1920’s there were reports of feral camels wandering in the southwest leading to interesting legends. Today, little remains of this interesting piece of American history though some historic sites continue to share the story and hold untold accounts in their archives.

A U.S. Army camel stands outside the Drum Barracks at the Wilmington Harbor outside Los Angeles, circa 1861/63. Photo credit: Rudolph D’Heureuse - Public Domain

The research plan is to access the various repositories to find connections and accounts of people associated with the camels to fill in the gaps of the camel experiment. Some recent scholarship links the camel experiment to efforts of illegal international slave trading which requires more evaluation. After several years of studying the camel experiment and gathering a larger comprehension of events of the mid-nineteenth century, an updated overview of the endeavor within the context of westward expansion would be beneficial to the field and of specific importance to Texas history.

---

[1] Stephen Bonsal, Edward Fitzgerald Beale, A Pioneer in the Path of Empire, 1822-1903 (New York: Knickerbocker Press, 1912); Odie B. Faulk, The U.S. Camel Corps: An Army Experiment (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976); Lewis B. Lesley (ed)., Uncle Sam’s Camels: The Journal of May Humphreys Stacey Supplemented by the Report of Edward Fitzgerald Beale, 1857-1858 (Cambridge: Harvard University, 1929).

[2] John Salmon Ford, Rip Ford’s Texas, ed. Stephen B. Oates (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1991).

[3] Harlan D. Fowler, Three Caravans to Yuma: The Untold Story of the Bactrian Camels in Western America (Glendale: Arthur H. Clark Company, 1980); Harlan D. Fowler, Camels to California: A Chapter in Western Transportation (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1950).

American Entrepreneurship Since 1900 Assignment: Theories of the Great Depression - Keynesian Theory

           Looking back on the Great Depression today, many people think they know the direct cause to why it happened and the reason it lasted so long. Everybody likes to point to Black Thursday, October 24, 1929 when the stock market seemed to go into free fall and on Tuesday, October 29, 1929 the New York Stock Exchange saw over sixteen-million shares traded. People who had heavily invested or borrowed found themselves in bleak situations as the banks had no money to give. Businesses closed and work was hard to find. Since there were few ways to make money, people were not spending money and there was no way for the economy to recover on its own. Another accepted belief is that the Great Depression ended once the United States geared up to enter World War II. However, those are just simplified understandings that most high school and even early college level students have been provided. The situation is more complicated and various economic theories are involved.

            The Great Depression did not suddenly happen in late October 1929 for no reason. There had been mounting problems in the United States’ economy for years. During the 1920’s the United States was still riding high from the Progressive Era with its innovation and the economic growth stemming from the rebuilding efforts in Europe after World War I. As the economy kept going strong, more people started investing in the stock market, but often only buying on margin (only paying a percentage of the stock’s value and borrowing the rest). But a big issue came from overproduction and supply in the agricultural industry. As the excess of product flooded the market the prices began to fall and farmers were struggling. Mirror situations were occurring in the industrial industry as demand for production increased but wages did not match, which caused a decrease in consumerism followed by a decrease in production. When the stock market crashed, the run on banks showed the lack of faith as banks began to fold under and people lost everything.

            Recessions and depressions are not unusual in an economic cycle after a financial crisis; this is strongly believed in the Austrian School of Economics. The issue with the Great Depression was why was it so severe? How can it be prevented from happening again? If a depression hits, how does an economy get out of it and recover?

An economic theory, known as the Keynesian Theory, was created by a British economist, John Maynard Keynes during the Great Depression. He believed that an economy is driven by the demand for goods and services. His theory about the Great Depression focused on there not being enough aggregate demand, which led to less spending, which spiraled to the need for less production and fewer jobs; a cycle where there was even less money available for spending to be injected into the economy. Aggregate demand is a term to describe how much somebody is willing to spend or consume in a year – but the ‘somebody’ encompasses all people, businesses, and governments of a country. As the depression continued on, the negative outlook about the situation would prevent businesses from investing in their company and that dominoed into lower employment and less output – perpetuating a depressed economy. Aggregate demand is too low for the economy to recover. Without an outward control, economies can not stabilize.

Keynes saw free markets as lacking the ability to provide full employment, so as a solution, he thought governments needed to be involved and have policies in place to stabilize employment and pricing. During depressions, governments should lower taxes and spend money to create jobs – even if it creates a government budget deficit. These jobs could be for infrastructure projects (which President FDR implements with programs like the Works Progress Administration and the Civilian Conservation Corps). By creating jobs there is income provided, which allows the spending of money, which helps the economy to keep moving. Aggregate demand increases and the economy is boosted. On the flip side, Keynes thought that during higher demand periods with a hot economy, the government should raise taxes to prevent inflation. Generally, Keynesian theory is a strong supporter of government involvement in order to control the economy.

            The Keynesian Theory does not provide the whole solution, however. Some economists stick to a classical economic theory where intervention should be left out and allow for free market supply and demand to eventually balance the economy again. Later, an economic theory brought forward by Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz (mainly viewed as the Monetarist theory) posits that the Great Depression was not about the economy, but instead caused by limited money supply and mismanagement by the Federal Reserve. This theory began to win out over the Keynesian Theory when it could not explain why, in the 1970s, there was slow economic growth but inflation was high. Only after implementing solutions of the Monetarist theory (restricting money supply) did inflation decrease, though a recession followed. Monetarist actions were utilized again by the Fed during the 2007 recession when interest rates were lowered in order to stimulate the economy.

            There will continue to be theories and debates about the causes of the Great Depression in the 1930s. It remains a complicated issue. Economists keep studying the period and look for trends or similarities in the market that might reveal new ideas about it so they can hopefully prevent it from happening again. The Keynesian Theory seemed to fit the situation at the time of the Great Depression; however, it does not work for other economic disruptions. As time progresses, economics seems like a wild science that is still being understood and more theories will be developed in the future.         

 

 

 

Sources

Bernstein, Michael A. “The Great Depression as Historical Problem.” OAH Magazine of History 16, no. 1 (2001): 3–10. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25163480.

Dickson, Paul. “The Crash of 1929.” Bill of Rights Institute. https://billofrightsinstitute.org/essays/the-crash-of-1929. Accessed July 23, 2025.

Foldvary, Fred E. “The Austrian Theory of the Business Cycle.” The American Journal of Economics and Sociology 74, no. 2 (2015): 278–97. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43818666.

Hall, Robert E. “Why Does the Economy Fall to Pieces after a Financial Crisis?” The Journal of Economic Perspectives 24, no. 4 (2010): 3–20. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20799170.

Jahan, Sarwat, and Chris Papageorgiou. “Monetarism: Money Is Where It’s At.” Finance and Development. International Monetary Fund. https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/basics/16_monetarism.htm. Accessed July 23, 2025.

Jahan, Sarwat, Ahmed Saber Mahmud, and Chris Papageorgiou. “What is Keynesian Economics?” Finance and Development. International Monetary Fund. https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/basics/4_keynes.htm. Accessed July 23, 2025.

Ohanian, Lee E., and Lee E. Ohanian. “Understanding Economic Crises: The Great Depression and the 2008 Recession.” The Economic Record. 86, no. s1 (2010): 2–6. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4932.2010.00667.x.

Romer, Christina D. “What Ended the Great Depression?” The Journal of Economic History 52, no. 4 (1992): 757–84. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2123226.

Samuelson, Robert J. “Revisiting the Great Depression.” The Wilson Quarterly (1976-) 36, no. 1 (2012): 36–43. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41484425.

 

American Entrepreneurship Since 1900 Assignment: Growth in the Postbellum Economy

 California underwent rapid development in the later part of the 19^th-century. There would be several factors that influenced this such as the Gold Rush, immigration, westward expansion, employment opportunities, industry, and railroads. By evaluating census reports and labor statistics by sectors, a narrative reveals itself of growth and decreases. By researching into historical events that coincide with those decades, an explanation behind those numbers makes sense. A coherent understanding of the economic rise for the state can be made.

The latter part of the 19^th-century was a time of economic progress in California, a land incredibly rich in resources. Ceded to the United States in 1848 with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the land underwent rapid settlement with the Gold Rush of 1849. The thirst for gold brought in miners, followed by businessmen and development. The population continued to grow by the thousands. The first census that included California recorded a population of about 92,600 people but the next census, in 1860, showed significant increase, around 300% with nearly 380,000 people. In response to the need of organized governing, California was granted statehood in 1850. This hotly contested inclusion added to the larger issues boiling in the country over free and slave states that would eventually culminate in the Civil War. During the war, Californians were mainly pro-Union and the military took steps to secure ports, military posts, and government resources. For the most part, California was not strongly impacted by the hostilities that raged in the eastern and southern parts of the country.

            The Gold Rush was already drying up by the time war arrived. The mining labor would continue its precipitous drop in labor force into the new century. However, coming out of the Civil War, California continued to prosper in other ways. Farming had become a large commercial venture and labor statistics show a strong agriculture percentage through 1900, but then it would begin a slow decline. What were Californians doing for work if not farming, ranching, and mining? They were involved in businesses like trade, services, manufacturing, and producing commodities. This would be the new boon for the economy.

The 1860’s brought the railroads. The far western part of the country was now connected with the east taking only seven days to travel instead of four-to-six months. This technology would be the catalyst that continued to build a strong economy in the Golden State. California could export! There were markets for lumber, wine, and canned food. Produce such as fruits, vegetables, nuts, and grain could be shipped anywhere, especially with the invention of the refrigerated rail car. The availability of jobs, commerce, and tourism would continue to bring even more people out west, usually because of the railroad.

Americans could now travel to see the land they had heard incredible stories about. The railroad was more than happy to provide affordable fares to bring people to California. With visitors showing up, hotels, restaurants, and shops began to spring up around the train stops. Towns continued to grow and the service industry with it, according to labor statistics from the period. In 1890, nearly 19% of the labor force in California was within the Professional, Domestic and Personal service industries. These are the butlers, waiters, maids, cooks, gardeners, chauffeurs, and nannies. They were not just in the local businesses, though. Wealthy businessmen and other high class of American society were creating expansive homes in the flourishing new cities, which required domestic help. This is a simple economics principle of supply and demand in regards to a labor force and available jobs.

When things were already going well in California, another boost arrives with the focused drilling of oil. In 1876, the Pico Canyon oil field near Los Angeles was the first gusher in the state. Oil mining created the businesses of refineries that produced kerosine, candle wax, wheel lubricants, and gasoline (which was not a valuable product yet). Improving the cities, roads were being paved with asphalt. The new rush of the black gold led to numerous drilling operations, mainly in the San Joaquin Valley. With their success, even more products were being exported from the state, mainly by rail. This industry would continue, making California one of the leading oil-producing states, far into the 20^th century.

California’s economy would continue to expand as the progress and technological advancements opened jobs by the thousands. Westward expansion was continuing to bring more Americans out west who were finding employment in California. Immigrants from Asia were arriving to work in the land of opportunity. A strong and healthy labor force with a diverse composition of sectors is illustrated by census reports and labor statistics. The growth seemed unwavering through 1900, but then it stalls a little bit.

On April 18, 1906 an extremely powerful event shook California. The 7.9 magnitude earthquake could be felt as far north as Oregon and as far east as Nevada. It ripped open the San Andreas fault for nearly 300 miles. The quake and following fires would destroy San Francisco, most of the Bay Area cities, and causalities are estimated at over 3,000 deaths. Although economic growth in California would slow during the following years, areas not seriously affected by the earthquake would have higher population increases. As a result, increased labor and production would be higher than in the impacted locations. This led to the larger development of other cities which would have a role in economics, government, and culture for the next century, such as Los Angeles.

California has a rich history that was intimately influenced by several encompassing historical events that affected the entire country. By looking at census and labor reports a story develops on how that state became a powerhouse of business and exports in the late 19^th-century.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Bibliography

Ager, Philipp, Katherine Ericksson, Casper Worm Hansen, and Lars Lonstrup. “How the 1906 San Francisco Earthquake Shaped Economic Activity in the American West.” National Bureau of Economic Research. April 2019. https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w25727/w25727.pdf. Accessed July 3, 2025.

Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. “Transcontinental Railroad Fact Sheet.” https://www.gilderlehrman.org/sites/default/files/inline-pdfs/Transcontinental%20Railroad%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf Accessed July 2, 2025.

Library of Congress. “Articles and Essays: Early California History: An Overview.” Collection: California as I Saw It: First Person Narratives of California’s Early Years, 1849-1900. https://www.loc.gov/collections/california-first-person-narratives/articles-and-essays/early-california-history/. Accessed July 2, 2025.

Michael, Andreas. “The Past, Present, and Uncertain Future of California’s Oil Business.” The Way Ahead. December 19, 2019. https://jpt.spe.org/twa/past-present-and-uncertain-future-californias-oil-business

National Park Service. “California’s Role in the Civil War.” Golden Gate National Recreation Area, California. https://www.nps.gov/goga/learn/historyculture/california-in-civil-war.htm. Accessed July 2, 2025.

Popp, Andrew, and Susanna Fellman. 2016. “Writing Business History: Creating Narratives.” Business History 59 (8): 1242–60. doi:10.1080/00076791.2016.1250742.

Rhode, Paul W. “The Evolution of California Manufacturing.” Public Policy Institute of California. 2001. https://www.ppic.org/wp-content/uploads/content/pubs/report/R_1001PRR.pdf Accessed July 2, 2025.

Takahashi, Kennith I. and Donald L. Gautier. “A Brief History of Oil and Gas Exploration in the Southern San Juaquin Valley of California.” Petroleum Systems and Geologic Assessment of Oil and Gas in the San Juaquin Basin Province, California. 2007. https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/pp1713/03/pp1713_ch03.pdf.

U.S. Census Bureau. 1850 Census Records, “The Seventh Census of the United States: 1850 – California.” https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1850/1850a/1850a-47.pdf. Accessed July 2, 2025.

U.S. Census Bureau. 1860 Census Records, “Population of the United States in 1860: California.” https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1860/population/1860a-06.pdf. Accessed July 2, 2025.

U.S. Census Bureau. 1870 Census Records, “Population, with Race, 1870: Alabama through California.” https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1870/compendium/1870e-07.pdf. Accessed July 2, 2025.

U.S. Census Bureau. 1880 Census Records, “General Population Tables, 1880: Alabama through Iowa.” https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1880/vol-01-population/1880_v1-09.pdf

U.S. Census Bureau. 1890 Census Records, “Census Bulletin – Population of California by Minor Civil Divisions.” https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1890/bulletins/demographics/134-population-of-ca.pdf

U.S. Census Bureau. 1900 Census Records, “Twelfth Census of the United States, Census Bulletin – Population of California by Counties and Minor Civil Divisions.” https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1900/bulletins/demographic/10-population-ca.pdf

USGS. “The Great 1906 San Francisco Earthquake.” Earthquake Hazards Program. https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/events/1906calif/18april/. Accessed July 3, 2025.